March 11, 2010

Parents on Probation or Parole

The past two decades have seen large increases in the numbers of adults involved in the criminal justice system, including those incarcerated, on probation, and on parole.¹ Although the numbers of each of these groups increased substantially, the numbers of those on probation have increased at a much faster rate; yet, much less attention has been given to those on probation and to those on parole. Probationers and parolees often have an array of health problems, including substance use disorders.^{2, 3}

One subgroup of those on probation or parole that may be of particular concern, however, comprises parents with children under the age of 18. Although research on the substance use behaviors of incarcerated parents and their children is limited,⁴ there is even less information about the behaviors of parents on probation or parole. Gaining a better understanding of this population and its substance use problems may help to inform criminal justice personnel, family services personnel, educators, and policymakers about the needs of this population (both parents and children) and help them with service planning.

The National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) asks respondents if, at any time during the past 12 months, they were (1) on probation or (2) on parole, supervised release, or other conditional release from prison. NSDUH also asks about use of alcohol and illicit drugs, as well as dependence or abuse.^{5, 6} This issue of The NSDUH Report focuses on substance use and dependence or abuse among persons aged 18 or older who were living with at least one biological, step-, adoptive, or foster child aged 17 or younger. All findings in the report are annual averages based on combined 2005 to 2008 data.

Combined data indicate that 2.4 percent of adults—an estimated 5.3 million persons—were on probation or parole in the past year. More than one quarter of these (28.4 percent, or an estimated 1.5 million) lived with a child aged 17 or younger, including 16.1 percent who lived with a child aged 5 or younger. Of all parents living with children aged 17 or younger, 2.1 percent were past year probationers or parolees.

The demographic characteristics of parents on probation or parole differed from those of other parents. Of probationers or parolees living with a child aged 17 or younger, 49.9 percent were males parenting with a partner or spouse, 23.3 percent were females parenting with a partner or spouse, 19.5 percent were females parenting alone, and 7.3 percent were males parenting alone; these percentages differed significantly from those of parents not on probation or parole (Table 1).

Slightly more than half (54.4 percent) of parents on probation or parole living with children were white, 23.8 percent were Hispanic, and 18.3 percent were black. By comparison, 63.5 percent of parents who were not on probation or parole were white, 17.8 percent were Hispanic, and 11.9 percent were black. Parents on probation or parole tended to be younger and to have less education and lower incomes than their counterparts who were not on probation or parole. Additionally, only about three fifths (61.4 percent) of parents on probation or parole had health insurance coverage compared with more than four fifths (84.5 percent) of parents who were not on probation or parole.⁷

Parents on probation or parole were twice as likely as parents not on probation or parole to have used tobacco in the past month (65.1 vs. 30.7 percent) (Figure 1). Although the rates of past month alcohol use for the two groups of parents did not differ significantly, those on probation or parole were more likely to engage in binge alcohol use (38.0 vs. 24.5 percent).⁸ The rate of past month illicit drug use among parents on probation or parole was about 3 times that of parents not on probation or parole (19.8 vs. 6.0 percent). Parents on probation or parole were also significantly more likely than those not on probation or parole to have met the criteria for alcohol dependence or abuse (20.3 vs. 6.1 percent) or for illicit drug dependence or abuse (11.3 vs. 1.6 percent) (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Substance Use in the Past Month among Parents Living with Children Aged 17 or Younger, by Past Year Probation or Parole Status: 2005 to 2008

Figure 2. Substance Abuse or Dependence in the Past Year among Parents Living with Children Aged 17 or Younger, by Past Year Probation or Parole Status: 2005 to 2008

The findings that 1.5 million parents are on probation or parole and have substantially higher rates of substance abuse problems suggest the need for increased attention to both of these populations in terms of problem identification, service provision, and policy development. Children of substance abusers are themselves at increased risk of using substances,⁹ and children of criminally involved parents are also more likely to become involved with the criminal justice system than children whose parents have had no such involvement.¹⁰ For these at-risk children, coordinated programs that promote identification of their circumstances, outreach, and engagement, coupled with appropriate educational, social, and, if necessary, prevention or treatment services may be needed to promote healthy and well-adjusted lives. Similarly, as individuals are released into the parole or probation systems, gatekeepers in these systems need to be aware of the adults' needs for treatment and other services and to identify dependent children who may also be at risk.